Observational methods in Research

Ethnography, observational methods and content analysis in research work.

What is Ethnography?

Ethnography involves a systematic study of people and cultures.

• Ethno: people;
• Graphy: describe something

Ethnography: describing and understanding another way of life from the native/insider point of view (Neuman, 2007).

Ethnography is about observing and understanding how people live their lives, its about observing people’s behaviors on their terms, and not the researchers.

Ethnography in research involves studying people in their own environment using methods such as participant observation and face-to-face interviewing.

Ethnographic research has its advantages. For example, through participant observation, ethnographer can “immerse” themselves in a new environment and generate a rich understanding of social action and its subtleties in various contexts.

In this method, you observe and listen in an indirect way when on the ‘field’.

Overt versus covert ethnography

• Closed/non-public vs. open/public settings
• Overt role – Participants aware of researcher’s intentions
• Covert role – Researcher’s identity not disclosed

The covert role in ethnography:

Advantages

• Avoids the need to negotiate access
• Reactivity is not a problem

Disadvantages

• Practical difficulties in taking notes
• Cannot use other methods
• Anxiety about ‘blowing your cover’
• Ethical problems (deception, informed consent)

Types Of Observation

There are many types of observation:

• Direct or indirect,
• Participant or non-participant,
• Obtrusive or non-obtrusive,
• Structured or non-structured.

The observation and actual behavior of people observed is important – Not what people say they did or feel:

• For example, people value health but they would pick up food they know is unhealthy.
• Observing families watching TV in their living rooms to understand reaction to TV advertisements (Jayasinghe & Ritson, 2013)

However, Researcher does not get any insight into what people may be thinking without triangulating with other methods (interviews)

Participative – Non-participative

Participative Observation

• Observers becomes a participant in the program, culture or context being observed.
• May require long time as the researcher needs to become accepted as a natural part of the group.

Non-Participative Observations

• Observers not directly involved
• Looking from a distance
• Electronic observations

Fieldwork Methods

Selection and sampling (field site, what, who, when, etc).

Triangulation of methods:

• Participant observation
• Interviewing (micro interviewing)
• Autobiographical interviewing
• Questionnaires
• Focus Groups
• Photo elicitation
• Existing documented information
• Folk tales
• Take lots of notes

Taking Field Notes

• Write down notes as quickly as possible
• Write up full field notes at the very latest at the end of the day
• Use a digital camera/ phone/ tape recorder to assist/provide additional ‘data’
• Notes must be vivid and clear (BE DESCRIPTIVE) – you should not have to ask at a later date `what did I mean by that?‘
• You need to take copious notes, so, if in doubt, write it down.

Types of field notes

Mental notes – particularly useful when it is inappropriate to be seen taking notes.

• Mentally ‘jot that down’.
• Photo of thing to come back to. remember.

Jotted notes (also called Scratch notes) – very brief notes written down on pieces of paper or in small notebooks to jog one’s memory about events that should be written up later.

Full field notes – as soon as possible make detailed notes, which will be your main data source.

Analysis

• Evaluating relevance
• Looking for patterns
• Considering phenomena through the cultural perspective
• “Thick description”
• Classifications, parameters, etic observations
• Maps, drawings, charts

Alternative Forms of Ethnography

• Visual Ethnography
• Video-recorded Ethnography
• Virtual Ethnography/Netography
• Mobile Ethnography
• Virtual Mobile Ethnography (German Molz & Paris, 2015).